PART I. BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PLAN
Section 1. Trends in Environmental Problems
1. Changing Environmental Problems
People live and run various types of businesses extracting resources in
the form of food and raw materials from the.surrounding environment, and
discharging domestic waste, manufacturing refuse, gas emissions, sewage
and other unusable substances into the environment. In other words, we
have enjoyed many blessings of the environment and placing impacts on it
at the same time. The environment, however, has the ability to restore
itself, and therefore as long as people's impacts stay within this
ability, the ecosystem remains in balance, enabling our socioeconomic
activity in a sustainable manner. However, as the world's population
increases and socioeconomic activities expand, these activities exact a
heavier toll on the environment and begin to threaten it. Exploitation
of resources in excess of nature's ability to restore itself has led to
a decline in natural resource reserves. Habitat losses threaten the
survival of various species of wildlife. Output levels of waste and other
discharges beyond nature's ability to purify itself is causing actual or
potential pollution.
1.1. The Nation's Environment
In Japan, during the period of rapid economic expansion after World War
II, the environmental contamination and nature destruction became major
social problems. In retrospect, these problems arose from the
insufficient consideration on the environment. In an effort to resolve
these problems, the Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control and
the Law for the Conservation of the Natural Environment were enacted,
and pollution control and nature conservation policies were implemented
based upon these laws. These policies, combined with efforts of both
citizens and local governments, corporate investment in pollution
prevention and technological developments showed remarkable results by
the mid-1980s. Likewise, an effort to conserve the natural environment
revealed considerable results.
Since then, Japan has continued steady economic growth. With the world's
second largest economy, Japanese production now accounts for as much
as 15% of total world production. During these years of economic growth,
mass-production, mass-consumption and mass-disposal have become an even
more an integral part of both Japan's socioeconomic activities and its
way of life. We also experienced further concentration of population and
socioeconomic activities in urban areas. In these circumstances, we have
not observed sufficient improvement in urban and domestic-type pollution
such as urban air pollution by nitrogen oxides, water contamination by
domestic sewage. Economic expansion has brought about increase of solid
waste. The quality of underground water and sources of drinking water
has deteriorated. Increase in the use of chemicals calls for our
precautionary efforts to prevent environmental pollution by chemicals.
Possibilities of new environmental pollution resulting from newly
developed technologies are also pointed out.
Furthermore, in urban areas, the nearby environment has
been disappearing and nature is becoming further removed from people's
everyday lives. On the other hand, in rural areas where population is
decreasing and getting older, maintenance of environmental conservation
capacity of forests and farmlands is becoming more and more difficult.
Now people are becoming increasingly desirous of comfortable and
peaceful lifestyles in a rich and pleasant environment.
1.2. Global Environment
Since the end of World War II, the Earth's population and the
activities of that population have both shown geometrical growth. The
world population grew from 1.65 billion in 1900 to 2.52 billion in 1950,
and further to 5.3 billion by 1990. Between 1950 and 1990, the world's
economy increased five times, the world's primary energy supply
increased more than four times, and fertilizer use increased more than
nine times. Developed nations have been consuming large quantities of
natural resources and have likewise, been disposing quantities of waste.
On the other hand, developing countries have undergone rapid population
growth, increasing demand for food to combat poverty, and numbers of
projects for economic development. Against this backdrop, deterioration
of the global environment has become a priority issue.
Ozone layer depletion and global warming are examples of environmental
issues affecting the entire planet. Likewise, effects of acid rain show
absolute disregard for national boundaries. Decrease of tropical
forests and extinction of various species of wildlife are going on
around the world. Some developing countries are experiencing
environmental pollution, caused in part by rapid population growth,
concentrated populations in urban areas and industrialization.
2. Future Trends in Environmental Problems
2.1. Global Economy, Society and the Environment
2.1.a. Socioeconomic Trends
According to the United Nations, the world's population will continue
to increase, particularly in developing countries, and will reach 10
billion by the year 2050. The percentage of the world's urban
population will increase, and, particularly in the developing world,
huge mega-cities are predicted to emerge. Regarding economic activities,
the United Nations estimates that the speed of economic growth in
developed countries will slow. Regardless, the size of their economies
is already extremely large. Although it appears that developing
countries in South and East Asia will experience robust economic growth,
it is feared that some developing countries will experience rapid
population growth without alleviation of poverty. According to the
International Energy Agency ("IEA"), using 1990 as a standard, demand
for primary energy will increase 1.48 times worldwide by the year 2010.
The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization ("FAO") estimates
that the population in developing countries will grow faster than that
of food production and, as a result, by the year 2010,
their total net imports will have increased. It also estimates that if
the fishing industry maintains its current production level, no
significant growth can be expected. The demand for forestry products is
predicted to continue high growth.
2.1.b. Trends in Environmental Problems
It is feared that these rapid population growth and expansion of
socioeconomic activities are threatening the Earth's environment, which
supports the survival of humankind. For example, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change ("IPCC") predicts that if no measures are taken,
the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere in 2050 will be
twice as large as that which existed before the Industrial Revolution,
while the average global temperature will increase by roughly 0.3
degrees Celsius every decade. This implies a full 3 degrees increase by
the end of the 21st century, using present temperatures for comparison.
Regarding ozone depletion, the Scientific Assessment Panel established
under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
predicted that, based on assumed compliance with the amended Montreal
Protocol (Copenhagen, 1992) by all nations, global ozone losses which
were first discernible in the late 1970s will recover in about the year
2045, other things being equal. Other problems include marine pollution
caused by human activities on
land and sea; desertification partly caused by over-grazing;
deforestation of tropical and other forests due to untraditional slash-
burn-farming techniques, excess gathering of wood for fuel and improper
commercial cutting; wildlife extinction due to over-hunting and habitat
losses; acid rain resulting from large quantity of fossil fuel use;
transboundary movements of toxic waste; and environmental pollution in
developing countries, such as urban air pollution resulting from rapid
expansion of economic activities and fuel use without appropriate
countermeasures.
2.1.c. Necessity for International Activities
These problems occur in a world where countries are increasingly
becoming interdependent upon one another as cross-border trade and
investment expand. The activities of one country may potentially burden
the environment of another country. It is therefore essential to tackle
these environmental problems on a global scale. As such, it is
necessary to promote international efforts, including strengthening
international ties when formulating and implementing environmental
policies, promoting foreign assistance to the efforts of developing
countries themselves to achieve the goals of environmental conservation
and economic development at the same time.
2.2. The Nation's Economy, Society and the Environment
2.2.a. Socioeconomic Trends
It is expected that the rate of population growth in Japan will decline,
while the percentage of elderly people, as a portion of the total
population, will rise. In fact, Japan's total population will actually
begin to shrink after the year 2010. Looking at population levels by
region, the populations of large cities will continue to rise, while
those in rural areas will continue to shrink through the beginning of
the 21st century.
Long-run economic growth is expected to slow due to fewer working hours
and a diminishing work force, whose numbers are expected to peak around
the year 2000. Savings rates will also decrease due to the high
proportion of elderly who must be cared for during this time.
Given these trends, the period between now and the early 21st century
is a crucial one in terms of providing public projects for environmental
conservation. It is predicted that the industrial structure will become
more service and information oriented. Demand for transportation will
grow moderately. The growth rate in total passenger number and cargo
freight is predicted to be smaller than the same equation with an added
variable to incorporate a distance figure. Consequently, people and
cargo will travel greater distances. Household consumption per capita
is predicted to increase, people are expected to work fewer hours,
leaving individuals with more leisure time.
2.2.b.Trends in Environmental Problems
Japanese society and its economy are beginning to mature after decades
of tremendous growth. In the process, Japan consumed large amounts of
natural resources and discharged great amounts of pollutants into the
environment. Japan is expected to continue its present trend toward
urbanization, but while doing so, it needs to control the burden
inflicted on the environment from such activities. The dilemma does not
stop with problems related to conserving the environment from the mere
discharge of regional pollution. There is still a concern about ever
expanding socioeconomic activities which harbor potentially detrimental
effects for the environment. Likewise, it is feared that the
sustainability of society itself is becoming increasingly uncertain.
Developed countries are imposing tremendous burdens on the global
environment. As a member of this group, Japan must take considerable,
affirmative strides to create a society able to sustain development,
while decreasing the burdens it inflicts on the global environment.
For example, if all measures relating to energy conservation were
perfectly enforced, it is predicted that per-capita levels of CO2
emissions recorded in 1990, would stabilize by the year 2000. This is
the goal of Article 1 of the Action Program to Arrest Global Warming.
If this can be achieved, the total increase in global warming is
predicted to be nominal.
To further prevent global warming, controls on CO2 emissions are
likewise necessary. This is the goal of Article 2 of the Action Program
to Halt Global Warming. Of considerable concern is the relatively high
rate in growth of emissions in the transportation and commercial/
residential sectors. This rise correlates with the increase in energy
consumption in each respective sectors. Measures to halt this trend are
needed. Also, if current production and consumption patterns persist,
waste generation is predicted to increase. Consequently, it is becoming
increasingly critical to pioneer new methods for controlling waste
generation at each stage of the socioeconomic process (e.g. the
production, use and consumption stages).
In large metropolitan areas, measures to ease various forms of urban
and domestic pollution, such as air pollution caused by nitrogen oxides,
emitted via automobile exhaust and water pollution, generated by
domestic water use in the form of raw sewage, should be implemented. It
is also necessary to design measures able to deal with potential
environmental contamination due to the use of chemical substances and
the development and utilization of new technologies. It is also feared
that if acid rain is not prevented, the ecosystem will begin to be
detrimentally affected in various permanent ways.
Conserving vegetation ("green spaces") and bodies of water in urban
areas, as well as forests and farmlands in rural areas are pressing
matters. Wildlife numbers are decreasing and some species are
threatened with extinction. The effort to battle these problems must
comply with the Japanese people's growing demand for a comfortable
living environment ("environmental amenities") and meet ever increasing
need to come in contact with nature.
3. Characteristics of Future Environmental Problems
The environmental issues to be tackled in future have the following
characteristics, in view of their trends and prospects explained above.
First, environmental issues cannot be divided into categories, like
human health, mankind's living environment or the natural environment.
It is necessary to adopt a comprehensive approach that takes into
consideration causes and effects of the entire system. For example,
the complex role forests play in CO2 absorption and the ecological
impact of acid rain caused by nitrogen and sulfurous oxides cannot be
separated.
Second, many current environmental problems, such as global warming,
urban and domestic pollution, are generated during routine daily
activities of companies and individual citizens. It is, therefore,
necessary for all members of society, to actively and voluntarily take
part in conserving the environment. It is also necessary for each
member to take another look at the socioeconomic system and his/her own
personal lifestyle.
Third, environmental issues have become problems of global proportion
affecting wide geographical areas and the lives of future generations.
These problems must be resolved through a joint effort by both developed
and developing countries. It is necessary to strengthen international
cooperation for this purpose, consolidate scientific information and
implement environmental conservation measures with long-term perspective.
Section 2. Growing Awareness and Activities
The national and local governments, companies and individual citizens
are becoming increasingly aware of the seriousness of those
environmental problems that threaten the basic life support system of
humankind. In addition, there is a growing consensus regarding the
urgent need to change both our current lifestyles and the prevailing
economic system to construct a sustainable society with minimized
environmental loads, each member of society sharing fair burden. These
beliefs are expressed as a principle of environmental ethics for human
beings living in a finite environment. This rising of awareness is
driving forward people's various actions and cooperation to conserve the
environment.
1. International Community
In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
("UNCED") was held, in response to increasing awareness of the
significance of global environmental issues. The countries in
attendance reached an international consensus to design and implement
measures to achieve sustainable development, globally. As a result, the
Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 were adopted. A majority of the
participants also agreed to sign the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Japan, as
well as many other nations, contributed to the success of the UNCED.
For the purposes of implementing the agreements adopted at the UNCED,
the United Nations set up the Committee for Sustainable Development.
Additionally, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
("OECD") and other international bodies, are working together to
integrate environmental and economic policies.
2. Activities in the Nation
2.1. The State
In recent years, a wide range of measures and activities have been
promoted by the government in an effort to conserve the environment,
such as measures concerning nitrogen oxides emitted by automobiles,
measures household waste water and protection of wildlife, and programs
for environmental education and others. Measures to conserve the global
environmental problems have also been strengthened, such as establishing
the Council of Ministers on Global Environmental Conservation in 1989,
and adopting the Action Program to Arrest Global Warming in 1990.
Furthermore, the Basic Environment Law was enacted in 1993 which aims
at coping with a broadened range of environmental problems of today, as
well as implementing the achievements reached at the UNCED. The Law
provides for new basic principles for environmental conservation and
various policy measures. The government also adopted the National
Action Plan for Agenda 21 in the end of 1993 and submitted it to the
United Nations, which specifies the measures of Japan to implement those
tasks of Agenda 21.
2.2. Local Governments
Local governments have always played an important role in pollution
reduction and nature conservation. Recently, an increasing number of
local governments are formulation environmental management plans to
address broad, current environmental issues. Many are advancing new
efforts to promote international cooperation and many are actually
crossing their own borders to creating alliances between local
authorities for environmental conservation.
2.3. Corporations
Corporations are becoming more aware of the inherent problems of
current socioeconomic system where mass-production, mass-consumption and
mass-disposal pattern prevails. They also recognize the need to reduce
the environmental load generated by their business activities. There
are voluntary actions taken by corporations to tackle these problems.
For example, some companies and economic organizations have established
their own charters for global environmental conservation or have
formulated independent environmental action plans. Some are maintaining
systems that conserve the environment, while some are implementing
voluntary environmental audit systems. Likewise, progress is being made
through independent efforts to transfer technology.
2.4. People
People are becoming increasingly aware of the burden they are imposing
on the environment and realize the need to change their lifestyles. They
are participating increasingly in such activities as recycling, national
trust, greening/tree-planting, and protecting nearby bodies of water.
International activities are also increasing.
Section 3. The Significance of the Plan
To appropriately respond to the aforementioned trends and
characteristics of current environmental problems, and taking account of
the growing awareness and increasing activities, it is essential to
promote a comprehensive and systematic measures to conserve the
environment, encompassing not only the Government's environmental
measures but also actions to be undertaken by local governments,
corporations and people.
The Basic Environment Plan sets the basic concepts and long-term
objectives of environmental policy which are based on the Basic
Environment Law, upon foreseeing through the mid-21st century, and
specifies the direction of environmental policies in the period toward
the early 21st century. It thus aims to ensure that all groups and
sectors of society share common understanding and cooperate with each
other for conservation of the environment.
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